Using Sociological Paradigms

In order to study culture and socialization, it is helpful to have an understanding of relevant theoretical paradigms to base analyses on. In this case, the focus will be on three classical sociological paradigms: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Three Classical Sociological Paradigms

Structural Functionalism:

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, can be either a macro- or micro-level theory of sociology that interprets society as having multiple interconnected parts that work together to fulfill the needs of the people in that society. An ideal society under the functionalist perspective is a stable one, or rather one that is in dynamic equilibrium with few to no instances of dysfunctions (Conerly et al., 2021, 1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology, para. 5-9). A function of a group can be intended or unforeseen. Under this perspective, each individual is a member of a group or groups bound by a type of function, such as religion, education, or healthcare. These groups can overlap, such as a person being a healthcare professional, an activist, and a religious practitioner. One major critique of functionalism is that not every aspect of society can be adequately described as having a function, like social change and dysfunctions. Functionalism also struggles with group and individual behaviors whose innate functions are elusive yet repeated. According to functionalism, if something is done several times, then it must inherently have a function for the society, but this does not always make sense, such as the case of repeated dysfunctions by members or groups. Prominent figures in the functionalism perspective are Herbert Spencer, Émile Durkheim, and Robert Merton.

Conflict Theory:

Conflict theory takes on a macro-level perspective of sociology by observing, analyzing, and criticizing various conflicts between groups within a society. Everything a society does is related to a conflict, and this conflict is often a result of inequalities, either from class, race, gender, or another defining feature, that explain behaviors, social change, and the emergence of new conflicts over time (Conerly et al., 2021, 1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology, para. 12-21). Conflict theory focuses on the lack of resources, such as education, healthcare, employment, personal time, etc., that are created by societal striations, or hierarchical groups, and how the groups in power can perpetuate inequalities in a society. An example of this is popular culture and mass media, which, from a conflict theory perspective, serve to distract middle class people from the many inequalities subjected on society from capitalism and aim to perpetuate the divisions between the classes (Stepnisky, 2020, p. 26). Subcategories within conflict theory analyze how group conflicts can actually lead to societal stabilization and transformation. However, a major criticism of conflict theory is its intense focus on issues within a society to the extent that stable or improved aspects are downplayed or ignored altogether (Conerly et al., 2021, 1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology, para. 21). The most prominent figure associated with conflict theory is Karl Marx, but other notable people are George Simmel and Max Weber.

Symbolic Interactionism:

As the only major micro-level perspective in sociology, symbolic interactionism observes and analyzes behaviors, language, and the exchange or use of objects between individuals or small groups of people. As Stepnisky (2020) notes, “humans interpret their selves and deepen their relationships to others through complex symbol systems” (p. 29). In this way, symbolic interactionism looks at patterns amongst people’s behavior, their use of certain languages or symbols, and how their interactions are influenced by cultural expectations (Conerly et al., 2021, 1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology, para. 22-29). Symbolic interactionism acknowledges that people can play multiple roles in society, and there are sets of patterns for each of these roles. In a subcategory of symbolic interactionism called constructivism, people are purported to created, or construct, their own interpretation of reality based on the multitude of interactions between them and other people. This also leads to dominant cultural values and, therefore, the identification of patterns acting outside those dominant values, which are known as deviant behaviors. The main criticisms of this perspective are that it is too narrow in scope and can lack objectivity because research is conducted on a personal level. Prominent figures include George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer, and Erving Goffman.

Influence of Culture on Human Behavior

The three main sociological paradigms, functionalist, conflict theorist, and symbolic interactionist, as well as social economist and feminist perspectives, can be used to understand how culture impacts people (Rafalovich, 2024). Culture is a blueprint of expected beliefs and values that a group of people consciously and unconsciously hold, although the ideal culture is often at odds with the actual culture in a complex society since the mores and traditions of normative behavior sometimes clash with deviant behavior (Conerly et al., 2021, 3.2 Elements of Culture, para. 1-3, 16-18).

Following Durkheim’s organic solidarity scaffold, countries experienced a shift from an industrialized to a post-industrialized and globalized society with easier communication, diversification of personal hobbies, interests, and careers, and overall deepening complexity of society. This also resulted in the share of intelligence, knowledge, and theories. In the US and other “wealthy societies across the globe, leisure gained prominence relative to work, with cultural choices, pursuits, and practices becoming more central to self‐expression and increasingly shaped by advertising and popular culture (sports, media, music, fashion, etc.)” (Grindstaff & Lo, 2020, p. 106). Culture is, therefore, both created and perpetuated by interactions between people and by social institutions and the private sector (i.e. corporations).

With the intensification of societal complexity, people may experience challenges to their worldviews and concepts of ideal behavior through real or manufactured deviant behaviors, and these “moral panics” result in either expansion of worldviews or the reinforcement of existing boundaries (Ben-Yehuda, 2020, p. 131). Deviance is relative to each culture and time period. In the US, it would be considered mildly deviant behavior to regularly consume insects. However, in countries like Thailand or China, it would not be considered deviant. Cultural changes, such as the impacts of feminism on the workplace and home life, have met varying levels of resistance before being accepted, to some degree, as normative behavior. Culture is both dynamic and full of traditions, which can sometimes cause dissonance and contradictory behavior in people. However, culture also carries dominant values and beliefs across multiple generations.

Culture is passed on from generation to generation through socialization.

Social institutions, such as education, religion, healthcare, government (legitimate authority), and the economy, are one method of transmitting culture to each new generation. For example, economic philosophies, practices, and rituals are embedded within our society, such as free markets, and the continuation of values and human relationships centered around economics perpetuates our economic culture through generations (Grindstaff & Lo, 2020, p. 106).

However, negative aspects of culture, such as social inequalities, can be perpetuated throughout social institutions. For example, issues of race, class, and gender are prevalent in education. These are inherent in the options for school: public, charter, religious, private, online, etc. (Merry & Paino, 2020, p. 209). Many schools offer differing levels of education and future networking based solely on family income (with a few token offerings of scholarships or vouchers given to families outside of the expected class), and the practice of awarding students with higher socio-economic means has led to increased class disparities as these children grow up and spread these practices through the next generation. 

Another major method of cultural transmission is through person-to-person relationships, primarily familial bonds. Although the patterns of family have changed drastically over the past century in the US, many cultural values and beliefs are still passed down between a parent figure and their child (Rafalovich, 2024). Today, there are many combinations of this, such as unmarried and cohabitating, same-sex parents, single parents, divorced, etc., and there are typically societal inequalities transmitted to the child(ren) as part of their cultural education (Barnes, 2020, p. 192). Positive values and beliefs are also passed down to children, too, such as behaviors that reinforce pervasive cultural norms that allow people to be accepted into their society. This can manifest through many avenues, such adoption of popular culture (like fashion or music), accumulation of specific types of material wealth (like owning a home or purchasing brand-name clothing, shoes, etc.), or the development of desired personality traits (like charisma, dedication, or assertiveness).

Want to know more?

• Barnes, M. W. (2020). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Sociology (G. Ritzer & W. Murphy, Eds.). John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
• Ben-Yehuda, N. (2020). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Sociology (G. Ritzer & W. Murphy, Eds.). John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
• Conerly, T. R., Holmes, K., & Tamang, A. L. (2021). Introduction to Sociology 3e. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction.
• Grindstaff, L., & Lo, M. M. (2020). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Sociology (G. Ritzer & W. Murphy, Eds.). John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
• Merry, J. J., & Paino, M. (2020). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Sociology (G. Ritzer & W. Murphy, Eds.). John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
• Rafalovich, A. (2024). Week 4: Social Institutions [online lecture]. In A. Rafalovich, SOCI510: Introduction to Graduate Studies in Sociology. American Public University. https://www.amu.apus.edu/course-schedule/details/?c=SOCI510.
• Stepnisky, J. (2020). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Sociology (G. Ritzer & W. Murphy, Eds.). John Wiley & Sons Ltd.